Pluto and its Satellites from the New Horizons Spacecraft

Pluto and its Satellites from the New Horizons Spacecraft CAROLINE MOORE AbstractThe New Horizons spacecraft has provided the first close-up study of Pluto and its satellites. Much more analysis is required of the data but the early findings have revolutionised our understanding of the Pluto system. Discoveries such as the complexity of Plutos surface, the current geological activity, the atmospheric hazes, lower-than-predicted escape rate and the largest known glacier in the solar system were completely unexpected. Plutos moon Charon has surprised with its dark red polar cap and tectonic belt and data from the smaller moons supports the hypothesis that they were formed out of the remnants from the collision that formed the Pluto-Charon binary. Introduction Since its discovery in 1930, with a semi-major axis of 39.5AU, Pluto has been considered an icy oddity. Beyond the realm of the gas giants, Pluto did not fit into any known solar system architecture until 1992 when the existence of the Kuiper Belt (30-50AU from the Sun) was confirmed by the discovery of the first Kuiper Belt object (KBO). Now more than 1,000 KBOs have been identified, including five dwarf planets, and it is estimated that more than 100,000 objects larger than 100km orbit the sun within the belt. Its believed that the Kuiper Belt contains leftover remnants from the beginning of the solar system and that sending the New Horizons mission to explore Pluto, its moons and other KBOs would provide valuable insights into the formation of the solar system. The fastest spacecraft ever launched, New Horizons started its mission on 19 January 2006 and flew past Jupiter in February 2007 for a gravity boost which reduced journey time to Pluto by four years. It conducted a six-month-long reconnaissance flyby study of Pluto and its moons in summer 2015, culminating with the closest approach to Pluto on 14 July 2015. As well as the first mission to an ice dwarf planet, New Horizons is also the first mission since Voyager in the 1970s to an unexplored planet. The official NASA science goals for the Pluto-system exploration element of the New Horizons mission were prioritised into three categories: required, important and desired. A key goal was mapping the surfaces of Pluto and Charon with an average resolution of one kilometre (the best the Hubble Space Telescope can do is a 500km resolution) and mapping the surface composition of the various geological regions of the two bodies. Another key goal was determining the composition, structure and escape rate of Plutos atmosphere. The lower priority goals include measurement of surface temperature and a search for additional satellites or rings around Pluto. The full list of science goals appears in Appendix 1. The seven instruments on New Horizons were selected to meet these science goals. They are the most capable suite of instruments ever launched on a first reconnaissance mission to an unexplored planet (now dwarf-planet). They include an imaging spectrometer to probe atmospheric composition and planet structure; a visible and infrared camera to obtain high-resolution colour maps and surface composition maps; a long-range telescopic camera for high-resolution surface images; particle spectrometers to measure charged particles in and around Plutos atmosphere; a detector to measure masses of space-dust particles; and two copies of a radio science experiment to examine atmospheric structure, surface thermal properties and planet mass. The seven instruments are listed in Appendix 2. Although considerably more work needs to be done to analyse the data received from New Horizons it is now clear that all NASAs science objectives have been met. On 14 July 2016, the anniversary of the fly-by in 2015, NASA published Principal Investigator, Alan Sterns, top ten discoveries so far from the Pluto element of the mission. They range from the unexpected complexity of Pluto and its moons to the lower than predicted escape velocity, and the ten have been used as a focus for this dissertation. The geology of Pluto Prior to New Horizons, the best images of Plutos surface were obtained from the Hubble Space Telescope. A colour map released in 2010 isnt sharp enough to show any features, such as craters or mountains, but does show a degree of complexity and variegation with white, dark-orange and charcoal-black terrain. However, the evidence revealed by New Horizons of current geological activity was completely unexpected and the variety of landscapes on Pluto is also much greater than expected. Hummocky cratered uplands, washboard terrain (expanses of parallel ridges and troughs), chaotic blocky mountains, cellular and non-cellular nitrogen ice plains, pitted hummocky nitrogen ice plains and rugged dark highlands all feature. A prominent feature of the encounter hemisphere (EH) is Sputnik Planum (SP), an 870,000km ² oval-shaped plain on the left side of the heart-shaped Tombaugh Regio. SP is most likely composed of volatile ices Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡, CO and CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ and is the largest known glacier in the solar system. Computer simulations have been produced to show that the surface of SP is covered with icy, churning, convective cells which recycle their surfaces every 500,000 years. The modest internal heat of Pluto causes great blobs of solid nitrogen to rise up, then cool and sink back down. This helps explain why no impact craters have been observed on SP which has a crater retention age of no greater than 10 million years. Pluto and its largest satellite Charon are both tidally locked which means that one hemisphere of Pluto is locked facing one hemisphere of Charon. They both spin and orbit in 6.4 days. Data from New Horizons shows that SP is almost exactly opposite Charon: the chance of this happening randomly is 5%. It is proposed that a subsurface ocean exists under SP and that over millions of years the planet has spun around, aligning the subsurface ocean and SP above it, almost exactly opposite the line connecting Pluto and Charon. Along the west margin of SP there extends for hundreds of kilometres a discontinuous chain of mountains consisting of discrete angular blocks with apparently random orientations and sizes up to 40km across and 5km high (calculated by shadow length). Prior to New Horizons it was known that Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡, CO and CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ ices existed on the surface of Pluto, but once the images of these mountains were viewed it became clear that these ices could not support such high elevations and therefore water ices must be present. This has now been confirmed spectroscopically by New Horizons. Because water ice is buoyant with respect to N2 and CO ice, some small blocks can be carried along by convective or advective motions and larger blocks can be undermined, shifted and rotated. Because of this its possible, if the solid Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡/CO ice is sufficiently deep, that some of the smaller mountains observed may be floating within the plains, although the elevation of the l argest mountains on the western margin of SP suggests that they are most likely grounded on the basement. It is not known why there are no mountainous terrains at the eastern edge of SP. At a few locations at the eastern boundary of SP and the pitted uplands, smooth materials connect with SP along the floors of troughs 1.5 to 6km wide. High-phase imaging of the southernmost of these systems has shown clearly visible medial flow lines within the troughs, with the ice in the troughs sloping at an angle of 2-3 degrees over 50km. This implies glacial-like flow of the plains material into SP. At present it is unknown if the flowing ice carved the troughs. Cthulhu Regio (CR) is a large dark area ranging from ~ 15 °N to 20 ° S and bordering TR at 160 °E and stretching almost halfway around the planet to 20 °E . The region, comprised of a variety of geographical terrains, is covered by a thin dark mantle likely to be deposits of atmospheric Tholin. Tholin is a hydrocarbon formed by the action of sunlight on the methane in Plutos atmosphere. The methane molecules link together in progressively longer chains and as they get heavier they form a haze which eventually settles to the surface. Two broad quasicircular mounds, south of SP, might have an origin involving cryovolcanism. The smaller, Wright Mons, is 3-4km high and ~150km across, with a central depression at its summit at least 5km deep with a rim showing concentric fabric. The larger, Piccard Mons, is similar but reaches ~6 km high and 225km across. If their origin is cryovolcanic it would entail materials much stronger than Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ ice. There are features on the EH which suggest prolonged tectonic activity. Numerous belts of aligned troughs and scarps, that can reach several hundred kilometres in length and several kilometres high, are often observed to cut across pre-existing landforms as well as branch into each other and these have been interpreted as extensional fractures in varying stages of degradation. The differing fault trends and states of degradation suggest several deformation episodes and prolonged tectonic activity. The great length of individual faults on Pluto, their scarp steepness and spectral evidence strongly suggest a thick water-ice lithosphere rather than a thin one or one made of any of Plutos volatile ices. Pluto displays a wide variety of crater morphologies and sizes vary from ~ 0.5 to 250km, not including any possible ancient basin underlying SP. Crater densities vary widely, from heavily cratered portions of CR to the apparently un-cratered SP. From the total cumulative crater size-frequency distribution its been concluded that Plutos surface, as a whole, dates back nearly to the time of the end of Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB)- perhaps 4 billion years ago. On the EH only the eastern portion of CR appears to approach the saturation crater densities expected of a terrain that has survived from the LHB itself. In contrast the water-ice mountains and the mounds mentioned previously are very young and no craters, down to a diameter of 2km, have been detected on SP. This implies a model crater retention age of no greater than 10 million years for SP and possibly much less. The atmosphere of Pluto A major goal of the new Horizons mission was to explore and characterise the structure and composition of Plutos atmosphere. Much more work is required to fully analyse the data obtained, but already understanding of Plutos atmosphere has been revolutionised. Ground based stellar occultation had shown an atmosphere around Pluto composed primarily of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ with trace amounts of CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, CO and HCN, with complex surface interaction and an uncertain surface pressure of ~3-60 ÃŽÂ ¼bar and a warm stratosphere at ~100K above a much colder surface (38-55K). The New Horizons trajectory allowed near simultaneous radio (using REX) and solar (using ALICE) occultations. The spacecraft passed almost diametrically behind Pluto, as viewed from Earth, with ingress near the centre of the anti-Charon hemisphere and egress near the centre of the Charon facing hemisphere. The atmospheric structure at altitudes 0 to 50km was retrieved from REX. A strong temperature inversion at both ingress and egress was found for altitudes below ~20km, consistent with measurements taken from Earth. However new evidence of horizontal variations in temperature was discovered from two notable differences between the REX profiles at entry and exit. First, the temperature inversion at entry is greater than that at exit; the derived mean vertical gradient in the lowest 10km of the inversion is 6.4  ± 0.9 Kkmà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¹ at entry but only 3.4  ± 0.9 Kkmà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¹ at exit. Second, the temperature inversion at entry ends abruptly at an alti tude of ~4km, marking the top of a distinctive boundary layer. The temperature inversion at exit, however, appears to extend all the way to the surface, with no evidence for a boundary layer at this location. These differences in temperature structure cannot be accounted for by night-time radiative cooling or daytime solar heating within the atmosphere because the radiative constant of Plutos atmosphere is approximately 700 Pluto days. From REX data, surface pressure has been estimated at 11  ±1 ÃŽÂ ¼bar at entry and 10  ± 1 ÃŽÂ ¼bar at exit. Analysis of stellar occultation data from 2012 and 2013 yielded essentially the same result indicating that the mass of Plutos atmosphere has not changed significantly in recent years. REX data shows that at occultation exit, temperature adjacent to the surface is 45  ± 3K: this may be indicative of a surface material less volatile that Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ ice because a surface covered in Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ ice would have a temperature of 37.0K to remain in vapour pressure equilibrium with the measured surface pressure of Pluto. At occultation entry, close to the region SP, the mean temperature in the lowest 4km above the surface is 37  ± 3K close to the saturation temperature of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡. It is suggested that this layer of cold air could arise directly from sublimation of the Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ ices in SP. Calculations have shown that it would take approximately two years for downward heat conduction in the overlying temperature inversion to establish and an inversion that extends to the ground. So the observed boundary layer would have vanished on this timescale without the resupply of cold Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡: further confirmation of SP as a sublimation source. Models indicate that photochemistry in Plutos upper atmosphere is similar to that of Titan and Triton. Methane is processed into heavier hydrocarbons by far-ultraviolet sunlight and also solar Lyman ÃŽÂ ± photons. The solar occultation results show that the upper atmosphere is much colder than previously thought. The observed Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ opacity at high altitudes was lower than expected. The absorption of sunlight in the 57-64nm wavelength range by Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ at high altitudes (850 to 1400km) constrains the temperature of the upper atmosphere to be approximately 70K. The mechanisms by which Plutos upper atmosphere is being cooled are not yet understood. The existence and complexity of Plutos hazes, as detected by LORRI and MVIC, was unexpected. Extensive, optically thin hazes extend to altitudes of >200km. Distinct layers are present which vary with altitude but are contiguous for over 1000km. In the highest resolution images from MVIC about 20 haze layers are resolved. The haze is unexpectedly blue, suggesting a composition of very small particles thought to be tholin-like in composition from the scattering properties observed. The layers in the haze are possibly the result of internal gravity waves driven by sublimation forcing orographic forcing. Pluto has a much lower than predicted escape rate. Prior to New Horizons the escape rate to space of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ was calculated to be in the region of 2.8 x 10 ²Ãƒ ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ · molecules sà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¹ based on estimates of Plutos surface pressure and radius, as well as CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ and CO mixing ratios. However these calculations did not take into account the cooling of the upper atmosphere. Its now calculated that the escape rate for Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ is 1 x 10 ²Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ³ molecules sà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¹. The escape rate calculated for CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ is 5 x 10 ²Ãƒ ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ µ molecules sà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¹ which is much closer to estimates prior to New Horizons and also 500 times faster than that of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡. If these rates for Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ and CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ are stable over a single Pluto orbit and over the age of the solar system, the equivalent thickness of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ and CHà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ surf ace ice lost to space would be approx. 6cm and 28m respectively. This relatively small amount of Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ loss is consistent with an undetected Charon atmosphere but appears to be inconsistent with the erosional features seen on Plutos surface. This suggests that Nà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ escapes in the past may have been occasionally higher. The loss of methane is a suggested origin for Charons north polar red colour, involving varnishing of the winter poles over millions of years through cold-trapping and polymerisation of escaping hydrocarbons from Pluto. Charon The EH of Charon has two prominent features: a tectonic belt of ridges and canyons in the equatorial region and a dark reddish cap to the North pole. The tectonic belt is more than 200km wide in places and consists of scarps, ridges and troughs which are almost parallel. There are two long, narrow, steep-sided depressions (chasmata). Serenity Chasma is >50km wide and ~5km deep and Mandjet Chasma reaches ~7km deep. Both chasmata are similar to extensional rifts visible on several mid-sized icy satellites such as Saturns Tethys. Its assumed that the tectonic belt is the result of substantial, aligned tectonic extension of Charons icy crust. The fact that several large craters are visible on the chasmata implies that the extension is geologically old. North of the tectonic belt there is rugged, cratered terrain. Mountains of 20km can be seen in the limb profiles. The crater density at large sizes on the northern terrain implies a surface age older than ~4 billion years. The Northern hemisphere is capped by dark reddish region named Mordor Macula (MM), the extent of which does not correlate with any specific terrain boundary or geological feature. Layer This is an unusual feature because polar caps on other bodies tend to be bright, not dark, due to some kind of reflective ice or frost. Because the red-stained areas of Pluto look similar to MM it was originally thought that they might have similar origin. Its now known that Plutos red-staining is due to atmospheric tholins and since Charon has no atmosphere the origin could not be the same. Its now proposed that the tholins on Charon are made from methane escaping from near-by Pluto. The methane sticks to the winter pole where the temperature is lowest and the ultraviolet light rec eived at night is sufficient to start to link the methane molecules together. As daytime comes, the molecules are heavy enough to remain on the surface and sunlight completes the process of polymerisation to form tholins. South of the tectonic belt the surface is smoother, comprised of seemingly continuous plains named Vulcan Planum. Tectonic resurfacing is one possible origin of these plains. Areas of relatively low crater density and at least one pancake-shaped unit might imply cryovolcanic resurfacing. The spatial distribution of tectonic features across Charon is not consistent with the types of patterns predicted from tidal or de-spinning stresses. This may point to Charon having had an ancient subsurface ocean that subsequently froze producing the extensional features and possibly allowing the eruption of cryovolcanic magmas. The small moons of Pluto When the New Horizons mission was green-lighted only the dwarf planets Pluto and Charon were known. Then in 2005 the two small moons Nix and Hydra were discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope, followed by the even smaller moons, Kerberos and Styx, in 2011 and 2012 respectively. It had been expected that New Horizons would detect additional satellites but no other moons larger than approx. 1.7km in diameter are present at orbital radii between 5,000 and 80,000km. The general hypothesis is that Pluto and its satellites were produced by the collision of Pluto with a similar Kuiper Belt object and it was hoped that New Horizons would provide information on whether this was the case. Several findings have helped to reinforce this hypothesis. First, the small moons are highly elongated, suggesting they formed and grew by the agglomeration of small objects, but, due to their size, their gravity was not sufficient to pull the material into a spherical shape. Indeed, from New Horizons images Kerberos appears to have a double-lobed shape suggesting the merger of two bodies. The shapes are consistent with the hypothesis that they all formed in the remnant disk produced by the collision that formed the Pluto-Charon binary. Second, it has been found that all four satellites have high geometric albedos, ranging from 0.56  ± 0.05 to 0.83  ± 0.08. In contrast, the majority of small KBOs have geometric albedo of ~ 0.1. This is further evidence that the moons were formed from the remnant disk rather than being captured gravitationally from the general Kuiper Belt population. Third, 11 craterlike features have been identified on Nix, and 3 craterlike features on Hydra. Crater densities have been calculated which exceed the values found on the older regions of Pluto and Charon and suggest that the surfaces of Nix and Hydra date back to at least 4 billion years ago. This fact again supports the formation hypothesis. From the high surface albedo of the moons, its strongly suggested that, like Charon, they are covered with water ice. Unlike Pluto and Charon, which rotate synchronously, the small moons are not synchronous and rotate much faster than expected with rotation periods ranging from 0.43 days to 5.31  ± 0.10. In addition, the rotational poles of the small moons are almost at right angles to the common rotational poles of Pluto and Charon. These rotation speeds and axes have not been observed in other regular satellite systems and imply that tidal spinning has not played a major role in the moons rotational histories. A future study will determine whether chaos has played a part.

Changing Gender Roles in William Shakespeares Macbeth Essay -- Macbet

Changing Gender Roles in William Shakespeare's Macbeth  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Much attention has been paid to the theme of "manliness" as it appears throughout Macbeth. In his introduction to Macbeth in The Riverside Shakespeare, Frank Kermode contends that the play is "about the eclipse of civility and manhood, [and] the temporary triumph of evil" (1307). Stephen Greenblatt emphasizes the same idea in The Norton Shakespeare, crediting Lady Macbeth for encouraging her husband through both "sexual taunting" and "the terrible force of her determination" (2557-58). Macbeth responds to his wife with "a clear sense of the proper boundaries of his identity as a male and as a human being, [telling her] 'I dare do all that may become a man;/Who dares do more is none' (I.7.46-47)" (2558). Both Kermode's and Greenblatt's notions focus upon how Macbeth's masculinity is recognized and defined -- by Macbeth himself as well as by the potentially influential people who surround him. The critics who introduce the play in these major anthologies perceive the same weakness in Macbeth's character as the apparently evil forces who play upon it do: Macbeth's masculinity becomes the psychological vehicle through which he becomes incensed, inspired, and finally incited to action. If Macbeth's "manliness" is to be questioned, it is not likely to occur within the male-dominated world of battlefields and military victories which Shakespeare introduces in Act I, Scene 2. In this passage, the bleeding Captain praises Macbeth's heroism, contending . . . brave Macbeth--well he deserves that name!-- Disdaining fortune, with his brandished steel Which smoked with bloody execution, Like valour's minion Carved out his passage till he faced the slave, Which ne... ... Universities Modern Language Association 70 (Nov. 1988): 366-85. Dolan, Frances. The Taming of the Shrew: Texts and Contexts. Boston: Bedford, 1996. Greenblatt, Stephen. "Introduction to Macbeth." The Norton Shakespeare. New York: Norton, 1997. 2555-63. Hawkins, Michael. "History, politics, and Macbeth." Focus on Macbeth. Ed. John Russell Brown. London: Routledge, 1982. 155-88. Kermode, Frank. "Introduction to Macbeth." The Riverside Shakespeare. Boston: Houghton, 1974. 1307-11. Stallybrass, Peter. "Macbeth and Witchcraft." Focus on Macbeth. Ed. John Russell Brown. London: Routledge, 1982. 189-209. Williamson, Marily L. "Violence and Gender Ideology." Shakespeare Left and Right. Ed. Ivo Kamps et al. New York: Routledge, 1991. 157-66. Winstanley, Lilian. Macbeth, King Lear, and Contemporary History. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1922.

Michel Foucault

Michel Foucault, generally in his philosophy, has created a system wherein he  examines the relations of power as they are transmuted down in a society (not one  that it is held by individuals—and, indeed, it is not so perpetuated), wherein the  refinement of discourse over time allows for the normalization of behaviors and then that  individuals are encouraged, as docile bodies, to adhere to this program of normalization.  Foucault locates the origins of this process in asylums and prisons, and considers them an  Enlightenment technological development, which he calls â€Å"technologies of the self†: But I became more and more aware that in all societies there is another type of technique:  techniques which permit individuals to affect, by their own means, a certain number of  operations on their own bodies, their own souls, their own thoughts, their own conduct,  and this in a manner so as to transform themselves, modify themselves, and to attain a  certain state of perfection, happiness, purity, supernatural power. Let us call these kinds  of technologies technologies of the self. (Foucault â€Å"Sexuality and Solitude 367) Foucault locates these technologies of the self at the center of the process of  normalization that has shifted the process of punishment from an outward display of  power as in medieval executions to an internal process in which the prisoner becomes  complicit in his own punishment. By employing these technologies of the self an  increasingly analytical and ever more refined manner power is able to normalize almost  all of life and make the distinction between punishment and education trivial. In attempting to diagnose the evolutionary trend of the manner in which  punishment has been historically meted out throughout the ages, Foucault suggests that  there has been a gradual evolution from tactics of raw displays of power to more subtle  forms of control. While this might suggest a certain amount of progress in that it is a  progressive movement towards a less obvious brutal form of maintenance of the status  quo it is nonetheless   a pervasive manner of social control and thus the obfuscation of  means of social control over the passage of time, especially since the enlightenment,  should not be mistaken for true liberation or the work of real progress toward a deeper  goal of recognize some eternal truth about human rights. Whereas medieval society  employed the public display of punishment in intricate and executions of the most  excruciating form (such as beheading, drawing and quartering, hanging etc.) to help  maintain social order by showing the direct result of a failure to comply with law,  contemporary society uses more indirect and less overt methods for encouraging its  subjects to adhere to the traditional social order. Indeed, where medieval societies used  overt displays of brute force, modern society prefers processes of normalization, which  are less intrusive:  Another instrument used to achieve discipline is the normalizing judgment. Instead of punishing offenders for wrong doings, the administrators with power choose to  rehabilitate them to attempt to normalize problem individuals and make them a functional  and law abiding.   This type of corrective attempt is used through training techniques  including the use of repetition.   This could be used in the classroom for a student that  could not write cursive well enough to pass to the next level.   For a punishment, they  could be required to write cursive sentences over and over again.   Additionally, to  provide the society with this normalization or conformity, rewards become more frequent  than penalties. For those students that tend to fall behind, the prospect of a reward could  be more appealing to do well than the threat of yet another punishment.   This gives  individuals something to strive to achieve and creates incentives for being disciplined. â€Å"What Is Discipline?† Here, we see the ideas of punishment couched in the language of teaching and  rehabilitation. What is a deviant behavior is simply a mistaken approach to learning basic  social rules that can be corrected and analyzed and subjected to extensive discourse. Moreover, in this instance, there is not only the issue of negative reinforcement via the  coercive measure of the threat of punishing action in response to a putative misdeed, but,  moreover, there is the extension of a metaphorical â€Å"carrot† being extended to the  perpetrator of a violation should he manage to conform to the exact processes that the  captors. In this movement, this ability to make the punished complicit in his own   punishment, is the real power of the indirect method revealed because not only does it not  require an exercise of power, but allows those being punished to aid in their own  punishment. This idea of creating â€Å"docile bodies† by means of indirect punishments that seek  to examine and to â€Å"rehabilitate† rather than to torture is their chief use. Indeed, for docile  bodies are effective because they are given the illusion of freedom, in being offered a  choice between two possibilities they have the trappings of volition but when it has been   ordained ahead of time for them to choose one of the options of the other this merest veil  of volition is quickly revealed as just another discursive element rather than an  effectively â€Å"real† choice with meaning and consequence. Docility is a major advantage  because it allows the docile body to assist in his own rehabilitation and normalization  and, by extension, his own punishment per se: The term docility, or to be docile, means to  have a certain amount of control exercised over you. Foucault says; â€Å"a body is docile that  may be subjected, used, transformed and improved† (Foucault Discipline and Punish,  136). Docility was the way in which someone was trained, a way in which someone cold  be molded like clay to fit the needs of those that are in control. This was done in the  army, the schoolhouse, basically anywhere people were subjected to control on an  everyday basis. Docility is nothing more then discipline, where â€Å"discipline is a political  anatomy of detail† (Foucault Discipline and Punish, 139). The body was no longer beaten  and abused rather it was explored, broken down and rearranged.   Rather then being  destroyed the body was being entered into a political machine that produced docile  bodies. Foucault talks about docile bodies because he is trying to explain the shifts that  took place from the practice of torture and the spectacle to the building of the prisons.  Thus, the issue here is that by this method the body is forced to undergo a process  that, while substantially different from an experiential perspective than torture, has, as its  object, a surprisingly simple aim, which is of course the same ends of enforcing the  stability and standard of behavior that is normative and therefore beneficial to the  institutions of power. Through the creation of such docile bodies who no longer need to  be tortured but instead can be subtly goaded towards the process of rehabilitation and  ergo normalization, the standards of normalcy can be entertained and reinforced within  the individual by the individual. Indeed, even more ingenious is that, by such a method,  in which punishment is rehabilitation, the very distinction between the two begins to  break down. Punishment becomes a sort of identical with the very processes of   identification, analysis, and education. Part of the reason for this is that possibility of an  end telos of this process, of any sort of true enlightenment, per se, becomes an  impossibility, because such refinement and enlightenment leads only further into the  constricting web of discourse. Indeed, since the entire project of enlightenment refuses to end in any categorical  liberation (which is indeed an improbability if not an impossibility) that can be  demonstrated, this should be no surprise. Advances in rationalization and logic only serve  to further refine the methods by which processes like normalization take place, allowing  them to be now couched in doctrines of ethics, psychology, and criminology where they  can be used for the creation of docile bodies when in the past the only recourse would  have been the use of raw and terrible amounts of force: The enquiries have their  methodological coherence in the at once archaeological and genealogical study of  practices envisaged simultaneously as a technological type of rationality and as strategic  games of liberties; they have their practical coherence in the care brought to the process  of putting historico-critical reflections to the test of concrete practices. I do not know  whether it must be said today that the critical task still entails faith in Enlightenment; I  continue to think that this task requires work on our limits, that is, a patient labor giving  form to our impatience for liberty. (Foucault â€Å"What is Enlightenment?† 50) Here, we see that the capital-E Enlightenment has resulted in little more than a  refinement of the â€Å"strategic games of liberties,† which, of course, serve to do little else   to confine one to the rules of the game rather than allow for the possibility of a true  exit, and, similarly the possibility of little-e enlightenment for the individual is equally  impossible when each enlightenment only furthers the discourse and increases the  process of education which is the form of expiation in the principle order of things  anyway. Thus, enlightenment is an increasingly remote quantity whose value remains  unknown and unknowable, while the reality of the increasing and encroaching science of  punishment is advanced in discourse in such a way that the process of discipline is  reinforced through the further and stronger normalization of every single social act, since  the discourse about these acts also multiples, creating possibilities for discourse where no  such possibility even existed before. Thus, the teleological goal of the penal system then seem to be one in which it is  almost impossible to distinguish between education and punishment and, indeed, prison  and the outside world. Through the creation of bourgeois docile bodies, prisons  increasingly do not require walls because the normalization of every activity makes it  such that the mere examination of the entirety of one’s existence links one to the very  concept of the punishment that looks less and less like a punishment:   The ideal point of  penalty today would be an indefinite discipline: an interrogation without end, an  investigation that would be extended without limit to a meticulous and ever more  analytical observation, a judgment that would at the same time be the constitution of a  file that was never closed, the calculated leniency of a penalty that would be interlaced  with the ruthless curiosity of an examination, a procedure that would be at the same time  the perman ent measure of a gap in relation to an inaccessible norm and the asymptotic  movement that strives to meet in infinity. (Foucault Discipline and Punish 227) Thus, the conclusion we reach at the end is that the goal of increasing discourse  since the enlightenment is to make power’s reach ever more diffuse but ever more  pervasive—the inclusion of discourse into previously verboten areas allows for the  normalization of those areas and with that normalization comes control such that the  ideas of punishment and rational consideration seem to come within a hairsbreadth of  merging at the distance of an infinite regress. References Foucault, Michel. â€Å"Sexuality and Solitude.† On Signs. Marshall Blonsky ed. Baltimore: John’s Hopkins Press, 1985. Santos, Tomas. â€Å"Foucault and the Modern Day Panopticon.† Retrieved January 05, 2008, at http://www.spelunkephobes.4t.com/foucault_and_the_modern.htm Foucault, Michel. â€Å"What is Enlightenment.† The Foucault Reader. Paul Rabinow, ed. Catherine Porter, trans. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of Prison. Alan Sheridan, trans. New York: Vintage, 1979.                              

Exporting And Importing Free Essay Example, 2500 words

Superior product quality will boost the sales of the firm and help it to further expand its business in other nations. It will enhance the confidence of the staff and help them produce better. Price competitiveness i. e. value for money: Value for money is another important factor that may affect export performance in a positive or a negative manner. Consumers, in the age of such a high inflation in almost all the countries, want the value for their money. The firms’ while deciding the cost of their products must make sure that in addition to earning them profit, the price must be in accordance with the buying capacity of the people in the country they are exporting their products to. Only a worthy deal on the products will attract consumers and earn profit for the businesses. Service quality: Offering a great and responsible service quality will definitely build up the customers trust in the company. Being accessible easily and at the times of need will relieve customers’ headache and pamper firm’s growth. After selling the product it is the duty of the company to assist the customers with any hassles associated with their product. We will write a custom essay sample on Exporting And Importing or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Relationship with importers: Trust and sincerity is also an important factor which is the basis of relationships in the international scenario. International networking: Relationships are an essential mode of expansion of trade. Reputation and characteristics of firm: Reputation of the firm in the international market is the result of its product quality and responsibility. Some enthusiasm and driving force to export: Motivation keeps the working force behind the company inspired to work and perform. Capability to market the firm and its products internationally: It is vital for the business to market and present itself on the global front. A good marketing strategy will connect consumers and the exporter and boost up sales. Managements’ approach towards exporting and marketing: Responsible and dedicated behavior of the management is very important. Meeting the expectations of the customers and keeping up with the latest technological developments in other countries are the duties of the management. Personal attributes of the managing staff: Innovation, confidence, motivation and reliability are the key attributes of a good managing staff. Endorsement and promotion tactics: Impressive promotion of the business communicates well with the consumers and helps them know and identify the firm. Assistance from Foreign Credit Insurance Association: Limitation of finance can hamper the growth of a good business.